Glossary

the process by which peers reinforce problem behavior through signs of approval, like laughing, that increase the likelihood of that problem behavior happening again

An academic achievement goal in which the student only wants to avoid failure and is not concerned about learning or competitive success. This is tied to extrinsic motivation.

when we restructure or modify what we already know so that new information can fit in better

when ones' genes influence the environments and experiences that one seeks out

compare those rates among biologically related relatives and adopted relatives

a specific version of a gene

part of the limbic system in the brain, which is involved
with emotions and emotional responses and is particularly active during puberty

academic problem solving and performing calculations

an eating disorder characterized by self- starvation. Affected individuals voluntarily under-eat and often over-exercise, depriving their vital organs of nutrition. Anorexia can be fatal

when we modify or change new information to fit into our schemas (what we already know)

loss of participants over time

people who score low on intelligence tests overall but who nevertheless may have exceptional skills in a given domain

some genes are considered dominant because they will be expressed

only expressed in the absence of a dominant gene

fibers that extend from the neurons and transmit electrochemical impulses from that neuron to the dendrites of other neurons

the approach that suggests that the keys to understanding development are observable behavior and outside stimuli in the environment

study how individual differences arise through the interaction of genes and the environment

meaning that they understand and use two languages

an eating disorder characterized by recurrent episodes of eating large quantities of food (often very quickly and to the point of discomfort); a feeling of a loss of control during the binge; experiencing shame, distress, or guilt afterwards; and not regularly using unhealthy compensatory measures (e.g., purging) to counter the binge eating. It is the most common eating disorder in the United States

the perspective suggesting that multiple levels of the environment interact with biological potential to influence development

negative subjective evaluation of the weight and shape of one’s own body, which may predict the onset, severity, and treatment outcomes of eating disorders

a person’s idea of how his or her body looks

an eating disorder characterized by binge eating and subsequent purging, usually by induced vomiting and/or use of laxative

the degree to which environmental factors impact the expression of a gene

pattern of growth from head to toe

Any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker which results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation; or an act or failure to act, which presents an imminent risk of serious harm.

The failure of a parent or caretaker to provide for a child’s needs to the degree that the child’s health, safety, and well-being are threatened with harm.

Language that involves exaggerating the vowel and consonant sounds, using a high-pitched voice, and delivering the phrase with great facial expression

long threadlike structures found in a cell nucleus that contains genetic material known as deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

the environmental events and transitions that occur throughout a child’s life, including any socio-historical events

umbrella term used to describe people whose sense of personal identity and gender corresponds with their birth sex

a group of individuals who frequently interact with one another and share similar interests

the area of psychology that focuses on studying cognitions, or thoughts, and their relationship to our experiences and our actions

Growth and changes in learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity

a group of people who are born at roughly the same time period in a particular society

experiences specific to their generation, such as differences in education, economic conditions, advances in technology, or changes in health and nutrition standards, and not due to age-related changes

the first secretion from the mammary glands after giving birth, rich in antibodies

look for evidence to support that hunch, ignoring evidence that would tell us our hunch is false

a factor not being studied that may actually be causing the systematic movement in the variables of interest

a theory that considers the relationship between individuals and their physical, cognitive, and social worlds

view development as a cumulative process, gradually improving on existing skills

a comparison group that is equivalent to the experimental group, but is not given the independent variable

thinking that is directed toward finding the correct answer to a given problem

simple vowel sounds, such as “ooh” or “aah”

a relationship between two or more variables

a number from -1 to +1 that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between variables

the outer layers of the brain in humans and other mammals. Most thinking, feeling, and sensing involves the cortex

the ability to adapt to new situations and create new ideas

finite time spans in which specific experiences must occur for successful development

used to examine behavior in participants of different ages who are tested at the same point in time; may confound age and cohort differences

large groups of adolescents socially connected by a shared image and reputation reputation

Acquired knowledge and the ability to retrieve it.

how people come to terms with whom they are based on their ethnic, racial, and cultural ancestry

blueprint or guideline shared by a group of people that specifies how to live; passed down from generation to generation; learned from parents and others

ideas are tested against the empirical world

fibers that extend from neurons and receive electrochemical impulses transmitted from other neurons via their axons

what the researcher measures to see how much effect the independent variable had

The modern calculation of an IQ score from intelligence tests. It is the absolute measure of how far an individual differs from the mean score of an intelligence test. The mean score is usually 100 with a standard deviation of 15.

view development as taking place in unique stages and occurring at specific times or ages

a state where new information does not readily integrate into our existing understanding of the world

the ability to generate many different ideas or solutions to a single problem

Fraternal twins: when two eggs are released and fertilized by two separate sperm; the twins share the same amount of genetic material as would any two children from the same mother and father

a neurotransmitter in the brain that plays a role in pleasure and the reward system; increases in the limbic system and later in the prefrontal cortex during adolescence

both the researchers and the participants are blind to group assignments

Urie Bronfenbrenner’s theory stressing the importance of studying a child in the context of
multiple environments, organized into five levels of external influence: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem

a multi-celled organism between two and eight weeks after fertilization

to learning based on observation, and scientists learn about the natural world systematically, by carefully planning, making, recording, and analyzing observations of it

A field of study that looks beyond the genotype itself and studies how the same genotype can be expressed in different ways; in other words, how the same genotype can lead to very different phenotypes

a state of balance in your mental framework

how people come to terms with who they are based on their ethnic or racial ancestry

one's genes elicit a certain type of reaction from individuals with whom they engage

influences that do not directly involve the child, yet have an influence

the group of participants in an experiment who receive the independent variable

the possibility that a researcher’s expectations might skew the results of the study

Motivation for something driven by external rewards or punishments.

decelerated or arrested physical growth (height and weight measurements fall below the third or fifth percentile or a downward change in growth across two major growth percentiles) and is associated with abnormal growth and development

capable of being shown to be incorrect

Words are easily learned by making connections between new words and concepts already known

a human child who has lived isolated from human contact from a very young age

a group of abnormalities in babies born to mothers who consume alcohol during pregnancy

physical abilities involving small body movements, especially of the hands and fingers, such as drawing and picking up a coin.

The ability to see complex relationships and solve problems.

the observation that scores on intelligence tests worldwide have increased substantially over the past decades

the parts of the brain involved in impulse control, planning, and higher-order thinking; still developing in adolescence

sex cell involved in reproduction: the male gametes, or sperm, and female gametes, or ova

the socially constructed characteristics of women and men, such as norms, roles, and relationships between groups of women and men

the understanding that superficial changes do not mean that gender has actually changed

how one demonstrates gender (based on traditional gender role norms related to clothing, behavior, and interactions), can be feminine, masculine, androgynous, or somewhere along a spectrum

one’s self-conception of their gender

children develop their own conceptions of the attributes associated with maleness or femaleness

The single underlying factor that affects cognitive abilities.

sequences of DNA make

the genetic difference between individuals

the genetic makeup of that individual

refers to those who have an IQ of 130 or higher

provide scaffolding on which the nervous system is built, help neurons line up closely with each other to allow neuronal communication, provide insulation to neurons, transport nutrients and waste products, and mediate immune responses

When a child's temperment matches well with the style of their caregiver's responses.

rules of a language, including how we order the words and change the order to indicate different meanings

voluntary movements including the use of large muscle groups such as the arms and legs. The word “gross” in this context means “big”

where a learner actively acquires new culturally valuable skills and capabilities through a meaningful, collaborative activity with an assisting, more experienced other

people tend to change their behavior when they know they are being watched

the passing on of traits from parents to their offspring

How much variation of a trait in a population is due to genetic factors.

assumption that heterosexuality is the norm and that sexual orientation is biologically determined and unambiguous

a combination of different alleles for a given gene

one word expressions

two copies of the same allele

refers to those who, after exploration, have committed

a status that characterizes those who have neither explored the options nor made a commitment to an identity

individuals who have committed to an identity without having explored the options

status that describes those who are actively exploring in an attempt to establish identity but have yet to have made any commitment

false correlations that occur when people believe that relationships exist between two things when no such relationship exists

variable that is manipulated or controlled by the experimenter

empirical observations lead to new ideas

starvation due to a lack of calories and protein

a model that seeks to identify the ways individual take in, use, and store information

process through which participants are informed of the procedures to be used in the research, along with any expected risks or benefits

Individuals who have an IQ less than 70

a measure of intelligence that is adjusted for age

combines ideas from psychology and biology to explain how language is developed

Internal motivation to engage in something due to interest and satisfaction.

Short for “intelligence quotient.” This is a score, typically obtained from a widely used measure of intelligence that is meant to rank a person’s intellectual ability against that of others

also known as the “disease of the displaced child,” results in a loss of appetite and swelling of the abdomen as the body begins to break down the vital organs as a source of protein

a system of communication that uses symbols in a regular way to create meaning

the process in which different functions become localized primarily on one side of the brain

a term used to describe someone’s access to marketplace resources

structures in the brain (including the amygdala) that involve processing emotional experience and social information and determining rewards and punishments; develops years before the prefrontal cortex

studying a group of people who may be of the same age and background (cohort), and measuring them repeatedly over a long period of time; may confound age and time of measurement effects

the broader contexts of the community, including cultural, political, educational, legal, and religious systems

a condition that results from eating a diet in which one or more nutrients are deficient

moving back and forth between moratorium and achievement

An academic achievement goal in which a student wants to learn and master the material. This is tied to intrinsic motivation.

sexual self-stimulation, usually achieved by touching, stroking, or massaging the male or female genitals until this triggers an orgasm

the process in which segments of the chromosomes from each parent form pairs

sleep hormone whose levels rise later at night and decrease later in the morning for teens, compared to children and adults

the age at which a person is performing intellectually

interaction of the microsystems

description

direct, significant contact with others

the process of cell division

identical twins; occurs when a single zygote or fertilized egg splits apart in the first two weeks of development; the creation of two separate but genetically identical offspring

a string of one or more phonemes that makes up the smallest units of meaning in a language

a result of many factors, both genetic and environmental

extreme concern with becoming more muscular

a coating of fatty tissues around the axon of the neuron

an aspect of brain maturation in which more myelin is formed around the axons of neurons, thereby increasing neural transmission

role of biological factors (genes) in development

a decrease in one variable is associated with an increase in the other and vice versa

The failure of a parent, guardian, or other caregivers to provide for a child’s basic needs.

nerve cells in the central nervous system, especially in the brain

the selective elimination of non-essential synapses and the strengthening of important neural connections

brain chemicals that carry information from the axon of a sending neuron to the dendrites of a receiving neuron

role of environment in development

learning by watching others and then imitating, or modeling, what they do or say

watching and recording of a specific behavior of participants

processes visual information

The process of organ formation.

a label applies to all objects that are similar to the original object

intuitively discover a grammatical rule and overgeneralize it to new words

responsible primarily for processing information about touch

individuals who are involved in psychological research actively participate in the process

occurs when children passively inherit the genes and the environments their family provides

a group influencing an individual to conform to something, whether that be a belief or a behavior

a point on a ranking scale of 0 to 100. The 50th percentile is the midpoint; half of the infants in the population being
studied rank higher, and half rank lower

the process of interpreting what is sensed

An academic achievement goal in which a student wants to perform well in front of their teacher and other students. This is tied to extrinsic motivation.

refers to the individual’s inherited expressed characteristics

the smallest unit of sound that makes a meaningful difference in a language

Growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health and wellness

a developmental milestone that typically occurs at 9 to 12 months of age; the coordination of the index finger and thumb to hold smaller objects; represents a further development of fine motor skills

occurs when people's expectations or beliefs influence or determine their experience in a given situation

structure connected to the uterus that provides nourishment and oxygen from the mother to the developing embryo via the umbilical cord

a result of many genes

children who are liked by many of their peers and disliked by few

as one variable increases so does the other

the state of not having access to material resources, wealth, or income, and also includes the lack of opportunity to improve one’s standard of living and acquire resources

the ability to demonstrate common sense and street-smarts

participants becoming better at a task over time because they have done it again and again

how we communicate effectively and appropriately with others

the area of the cortex at the very front of the brain that specializes in anticipation, planning, and impulse control

the death of an individual while pregnant or within 1 year of the end of a pregnancy from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy

focuses on pursuing detailed information once a particular problem has been found prenatally, and can sometimes be more invasive

assessing anatomic and physiologic problems with the health of the zygote, embryo, or fetus, either before gestation even starts or as early in gestation as practical

thought accompanied by internal speech

pattern of growth from torso to out

the perspective that behavior is motivated by inner forces, memories, and conflicts that are generally beyond people’s awareness and control

A pattern of behavior that impairs a child’s emotional development or sense of self-worth.

teens put a on hold commitment to an identity while exploring the options

Growth and changes in emotions, personality, and social relationships

Research focused on the experiences of participants, rather than numerical data.

the scientific discipline in which similarities among individuals are analyzed based on how biologically related they are

Quantitative research involves collecting data from a large group, which is used to answer specific research questions and to generalize conclusions about behavior to larger populations.

every participant has an equally likely chance of being placed in any of the groups; results in a balance of the variables related to the construct of interest

every member of the population an equal chance of being selected for the sample

our genes set the boundaries within which we can operate, and our environment interacts with the genes to determine where in that range we will fall

The original scoring method of the Binet-Simon test. IQ = mental age ÷ chronological age × 100

can understand more than they can say, which is referred to

the inborn behavioral patterns that develop during uterine life and are fully present at birth. These are involuntary movements (not learned) or actions that are essential for a newborn’s survival immediately after birth and include: sucking, swallowing, blinking, urinating, hiccuping, and defecating

the ability to consistently produce a given result

Scores obtained on a measure are consistent over time.

a group of individuals chosen from the population

a process in which adults or capable peers model or demonstrate how to solve a problem, and then step back, offering support as needed

a set of linked mental representations of the world, which we use both to understand and to respond to situations

re-exploring after a commitment has been made

loss of certain groups of individuals over time

The realization that one's body, mind, and activities are distinct from those of other people

idea of who we are, what we are capable of doing, and how we think and feel is a social process that involves taking into consideration how others view us

a person’s belief that he or she is able to effectively perform the tasks needed to attain a valued goal

one’s thoughts and feelings about one’s self-concept and identity--it is an evaluative judgment about who we are

deliberate actions and choices that reduce the chances of success

set of rules we use to obtain meaning from morphemes

the interaction of information with the sensory receptors

requires particular experiences during a specific time for development to occur; experiences after the period ends can support developmental gains later in life

combines aspects of cross-sectional and longitudinal designs, but also adding new cohorts at different times of measurement; allows for analyses to consider effects of age, cohort, time of measurement, and socio-historical change

“calming chemical,” a neurotransmitter in the brain involved with the regulation of mood and behavior; serotonin levels increase in the limbic system during adolescence

the term to refer to the biological differences between males and females, such as genitalia and genetic differences

genes located on a sex chromosome (the 23rd pair)

how one thinks of oneself in terms of to whom one is romantically or sexually attracted

a technique to ensure that all members have an equal chance of being selected

the participants are unaware as to which group they are in (experiment or control group) while the researcher knows which participants are in each group

learning by observing the behavior of
another person, called a model

suggests that gender role socialization is a result of how parents, teachers, friends, schools, religious institutions, media, and others send messages about what is acceptable or desirable behavior for males or females

the ability to change one’s economic status in a society

a process in which people learn to behave in a particular way as dictated by societal values, beliefs, and attitudes

Vygotsky’s theory that emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture

a way to identify families and households based on their shared levels of education, income, and occupation

a measurement that reflects the degree to which someone is liked or disliked by their peers

Specific skills a person has that relate to certain intelligence tasks.

there is less than a 5% probability that the results happened just by random chance, and therefore, a 95% probability that the results reflect a meaningful pattern

a situation in which a seemingly healthy infant, usually between 2 and 6 months old, suddenly stops breathing and dies unexpectedly while asleep

the intersection between the axon of one neuron to the dendrites of another neuron

the selective elimination of non-essential synapses and the strengthening of important neural connections

the formation of connections between neurons

the set of rules of a language by which we construct sentences

to learning based on observation systematically, by carefully planning, making, recording, and analyzing observations of it

speech that omits unnecessary words (e.g., the, a)

This is an inborn quality noticeable soon after birth which can contribute to personality differences.

responsible for hearing and language

any agent which can cause a birth defect

the study of factors that contribute to birth defects

theory of intelligence that proposes that there is not one, but 9 domains of intelligence

a term used to describe people whose sense of personal identity does not correspond with their birth sex

the great, but temporary increase in the number of dendrites that develop in an infant’s brain during the first
two years of life

Intelligence theory that suggests that people may display more or less analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence

compare the rates that a given behavioral trait is shared among identical and fraternal twins

a word that is used for only a particular object

The results of a measure are accurate to what the researcher is trying to measure

the extent to which a given instrument or tool accurately measures what it’s supposed to measure

if you observed the model being punished, you would be less motivated to copy them

If you saw that the model was reinforced for their behavior, you will be more motivated to copy them

the difference between what a learner can do without help, and what they can do with help

the range of material that a child is ready to learn if proper support and guidance are given from either a peer who understands the material or by an adult

fertilized egg cell, containing the combined genetic information from both parents